Category: Articles/Essays (Page 1 of 7)

Robinson, “The Ephesian Artemis and 1 Timothy 2”

October 17, 2026 / Chuck Bumgardner

Jonathan Rivett Robinson, “The Ephesian Artemis and 1 Timothy 2: Assessing the Connection.” Pages 101–22 in Early Christian Communities in the Urban Contexts of Asia Minor and the Greek East. Edited by Katie Marcar, James R. Harrison, and John M. G. Barclay. Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity 125. Leiden: Brill, 2026.

This Festschrift for Paul Trebilco gives a slate of articles with interesting-sounding titles, and Robinson’s caught my eye immediately. To my knowledge, Robinson hasn’t published on the Pastorals before, but the sort of critical inquiry he’s engaging in provokes helpful give-and-take. In his words:

In this essay I examine recent arguments regarding Artemis worship in Ephesus as an explanatory background to 1 Timothy 2:9–15. While these arguments have had limited impact on the scholarship, they have strong popular appeal and have been effectively disseminated to a general audience in print and online. These publications promote research which has not been subjected to critical review in the literature. This essay seeks to address that lacuna.

The interested reader will want to know which “recent arguments” are in view. Robinson engages two interlocutors:

Gary G. Hoag, Wealth in Ancient Ephesus and the First Letter to Timothy: Fresh Insights from Ephesiaca by Xenophon of Ephesus. Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplement Series 11. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2015.
- Note also Hoag, “Demystifying Gender Issues in 1 Timothy 2:9–15, with Help from Artemis.” Evangelical Review of Theology 44.3 (2020): 242–49.
Sandra L. Glahn, Nobody’s Mother: Artemis of the Ephesians in Antiquity and the New Testament. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2023.
- Note also Glahn, “The First-Century Ephesian Artemis: Ramifications of Her Identity.” Bibliotheca Sacra 172.688 (2015): 450‒69; “The Identity of Artemis in First-Century Ephesus.” Bibliotheca Sacra 172.688 (2015): 316‒34.

One sentence from the essay will give you a sense of where Robinson is going: “There is no distinctive feature in the text of 1 Timothy 2:9–15 that is illuminated or explained by reference to Artemis devotion, that is not more plausibly explained by other contextual factors” (115).

Robinson notes he was prompted to write the article by a review of Glahn’s book by Lyn Kidson, and he seems to subscribe to Kidson’s conclusions. I was able to read the entire essay on Google Books, though I can’t say you’ll be afforded the same opportunity.

Hägerland, “Teachings of Demons in Later Times (1 Tim 4.1–5)”

October 3, 2026 / Chuck Bumgardner

Hägerland, Tobias. “Teachings of Demons in Later Times (1 Tim 4.1–5).” New Testament Studies 71 (2025): 579–85.

Abstract: “In this short study, the syntactic structure of 1 Tim 4.1–3a is re-examined to address long-standing interpretative challenges regarding its apocalyptic warning against demonic teachings. A traditional reading of the passage, as reflected in many translations and commentaries, asserts that the opponents are accused of both forbidding marriage and mandating abstinence from certain foods. This interpretation often relies on invoking the phenomenon of zeugma to explain the syntax. However, this approach generates significant difficulties, particularly in reconciling the Greek text with the subsequent focus on dietary restrictions in 4.3b–5. The study proposes an alternative reading that resolves interpretative tensions, respects the text’s syntax and explains why the subsequent discussion does not address marriage prohibitions.”

The article is available here.

Viljoen, “Christ’s Immutability in 2 Timothy 2:11–13”

September 6, 2026 / Chuck Bumgardner

Viljoen, François P. “Christ’s Immutability in 2 Timothy 2:11–13: A Threat, a Comfort, or an Encouragement?” Pages 78–93 in Biblical Theological Investigations into the Immutability of God in the New Testament. Edited by François P. Viljoen and Albert J. Coetsee. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2026.

Abstract: “This paper explores the nature of Christ’s immutability in 2 Tim 2:11–13, with particular attention to the varied interpretations of the concluding clause, “he cannot deny himself.” The passage, structured around four conditional statements, highlights Christ’s steadfast character in contrast to human unreliability. The final clause presents interpretative challenges, with scholars offering divergent views: some regard it as a comforting affirmation of Christ’s unwavering faithfulness to the faithless, while others interpret it as a solemn warning, emphasizing his commitment to justly judge the unfaithful. This study engages these perspectives and argues for a more nuanced interpretation, grounded in the broader textual context of the clause. The central claim is that the passage should be read as a reaffirmation of the letter’s overarching exhortation, encouraging its addressee to persevere in his ministerial calling amid adversity.” (78)

From the foreward:
“François Viljoen’s chapter examines Christ’s immutability in 2 Tim 2:11–13, focusing on the interpretive tensions surrounding the clause ‘he cannot deny himself.’ The passage, structured as a fourfold confessional statement, juxtaposes human unreliability with Christ’s steadfastness. While some scholars read the final clause as a comforting assurance of Christ’s faithfulness despite human lapses, others interpret it as a solemn warning of judgment upon denial. Viljoen argues for a nuanced synthesis: the statement functions not merely as threat or comfort but as exhortation, reinforcing the epistle’s overarching call to endurance in ministry. By situating the clause within the broader Pauline theology of divine faithfulness, the chapter demonstrates how Christ’s immutability rather serves as encouragement and assurance, anchoring perseverance in the unchanging reliability of the Lord.” (xviii–xix).

McQuaid, “Nearness of God”

June 9, 2025 / Chuck Bumgardner

McQuaid, Joshua. “Nearness of God.” Journal of Theological Interpretation 19.1 (2025): 89–109.

Abstract: Among Scripture’s many descriptions of God, “living God” language is at once one of the most common and least examined. Interpretations of the relevant texts have largely ignored theological categories operative within the doctrine of God, leading to a haphazard understanding of how this scriptural theme might inform theological articulation. By investigating the living God language in Rom 14:11 and 1 Thess 1:9, this study specifically responds to earlier neglect of that language in the Pauline writings and seeks to demonstrate the value of its recovery for theological interpretation. It considers relevant background texts in Israel’s Scriptures and argues that Scripture’s living God language regularly signals God’s communicative nearness—that is, God’s nearness to see, to hear, and/or to speak—sounding a note of personal engagement that interpreters often neglect.

The title of this recent article may not catch the eye of students of the Pastorals. However, as a treatment of “living God” language in Paul, it will be of interest to those working in 1 Timothy 3:15 or 4:10.

2024 Annual Pastorals Bibliographies

April 6, 2024 / Chuck Bumgardner

Around April of each year, we compile and post annual bibliographies for researchers in the Letters to Timothy and Titus. These lists of just-published and soon-to-be published studies aim to help researchers in the Pastorals maintain control of the secondary literature, and to give some idea of research trends. Among other avenues of bibliographic discovery, we solicit the input of Pastorals scholars who have published previously on the letters. Our thanks to all who contributed!

Our annual bibliography of recent publications on the Letters to Timothy and Titus covers contributions from all of 2023 and early 2024. Over 125 items long and international in scope, the list contains monographs, journal articles, and commentaries, as well as lists of dissertations and conference presentations on the letters. It is available for viewing and downloading here.

Our annual bibliography of forthcoming academic publications on the Letters to Timothy and Titus is wide-ranging, containing around 60 forthcoming works, including essays, monographs, and commentaries. This bibliography is available for viewing and downloading here.

Beale, “The Greco-Roman Background to ‘Fighting the Good Fight’ in the Pastoral Epistles and the Spiritual Life of the Christian”

December 5, 2023 / Chuck Bumgardner

G. K. Beale has generously mediated his recent ZNW article through a light rewriting of it in Themelios:

G. K. Beale, “The Background to ‘Fight the Good Fight’ in 1 Timothy 1:18, 6:12, and 2 Timothy 4:7.” Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 113.2 (2022): 202–30.

G. K. Beale, “The Greco-Roman Background to ‘Fighting the Good Fight’ in the Pastoral Epistles and the Spiritual Life of the Christian.” Themelios 48.3 (2023): 541–51.

The Themelios article is freely available here. Here’s the abstract:

“What does Paul mean by the expression “fight the fight” in 1 Timothy 1:18 (NASB)? The Greek verb στρατεύω with the noun στρατεία can be also rendered “battle the battle,” or more generally “perform military service” or “serve in a military campaign.” This expression occurs often in Greco-Roman literature as a patriotic warfare idiom for good character revealed by persevering through warfare or military campaigns. It also occurs in legal contexts to affirm someone’s innocence and good reputation before the court. This idiom is applied to Timothy to demonstrate his good Christian character and reputation over against the false teachers’ bad character. Paul similarly exhorts Timothy to “struggle the struggle” (ἀγωνίζου τὸν καλὸν ἀγῶνα) in 1 Tim 6:12, which most commentators recognize to be synonymous with “fight the good fight” in 1:18 (cf. 2 Tim 4:7).”

Robertson, “1 Timothy 1:3–4 in the Memory of Irenaeus, Tertullian, Athanasius, and Chrysostom”

December 5, 2023 / Chuck Bumgardner

Michael Scott Robertson has added a article in reception history to the secondary literature on the Pastorals:

Michael Scott Robertson, “1 Timothy 1:3–4 in the Memory of Irenaeus, Tertullian, Athanasius, and Chrysostom.” Religions 14.9 (2023), article 1123.

The article is open access, and is available here.

Abstract: In this article, I discuss reception history, its place within the history of historical critical methods, and social memory theory. I apply a reception historical lens buttressed by social memory theory to 1 Timothy 1:3–4. I show that the historical circumstances of this passage’s reception problematize using early understandings of it to reconstruct the referent behind “myths and endless genealogies”. I first show how the phrase “myths and endless genealogies” is ambiguous in the historical setting of the author. Then, I demonstrate that Irenaeus, Tertullian, Athanasius, and Chrysostom use this phrase against very different groups; however, all of these authors use 1 Timothy 1:4 for a (perceived) problem against their present group.

Fein, “From Pain to Redemption: 1 Timothy 2:15 in Its Jewish Context”

December 2, 2023 / Chuck Bumgardner

Sarah E. G. Fein. “From Pain to Redemption: 1 Timothy 2:15 in its Jewish Context.” Pages 85–100 in Gender and Second-Temple Judaism. Edited by Kathy Ehrensperger and Shayna Sheinfeld. Lanham, MD: Lexington Fortress, 2020.

Students of the Pastorals might be interested in this treatment of 1 Timothy 2:15, which I was unaware of until recently. The author has made the chapter available at Academia.

Persig, “The Language of Imperial Cult and Roman Religion in the Latin New Testament: The Latin Renderings of ‘Saviour’”

December 2, 2023 / Chuck Bumgardner

Anna Persig, “The Language of Imperial Cult and Roman Religion in the Latin New Testament: The Latin Renderings of ‘Saviour.’” New Testament Studies 69.1 (2023): 21–34.

Students of the Pastorals may benefit from Persig’s work on σωτήρ reflected in this article, given the significance of the term in the letters. Here’s the abstract:

The title σωτήρ, ‘saviour’, is bestowed on Christ and God in the New Testament and rendered in the Latin translations by conseruator, saluificator, salutificator, salutaris and saluator. Although these terms convey the same meaning, they are not interchangeable: this study argues that conseruator, which is the most frequent word for saviour on imperial coins, is rarely attested in the Latin versions because of its association with the imperial cult. The predominant translation, saluator, was coined as an alternative rendering to the other words which had religious and political connotations.

The article is open access and is available here.

Krauter, recent publications

October 28, 2023 / Chuck Bumgardner

I received word recently of two new Pastorals publications by Stefan Krauter and, given the volume of work he is producing, thought it might be helpful to provide a vignette of Krauter and his recent publications in the letters. One of the purposes of pastoralepistles.com is keeping researchers in the letters apprised of scholarly work being done in the Pastorals.

Stefan Krauter (PhD, University of Tübingen) serves as a professor of New Testament at the Univerisity of Zurich. His faculty page indicates that in addition to a research focus on the Pauline corpus, he devotes attention to the examination of the New Testament writings in their relationships to the Greek and Latin literature of the early imperial period and the interpretation of the Pauline letters in the 16th century.

Krauter has been commissioned to produce the commentary on the Pastoral Epistles in the Handbuch zum Neuen Testament to replace the hoary Die Pastoralbriefe of Martin Dibelius. Dibelius’s influential volume was originally published in 1913 as Die Briefe des Apostels Paulus. An Timotheus I, II an Titus, and saw its fourth edition in 1966, revised by Hans Conzelmann, then translated into English as The Pastoral Epistles in the Hermeneia series in 1972. Krauter’s replacement volume will thus come over a century after Dibelius’s first edition, and over fifty years after the Hermeneia volume.

Krauter’s research for this volume has produced a spate of recent publications, and more are forthcoming. At this point, I am aware of the following:

“‘All Things Bright and Beautiful’: La théologie de la création dans 1 Timothée.” Revue de théologie et de philosophie 155 (2023).

“Auf den zweiten Blick: Eine Hinführung zu den Pastoralbriefen.” Bibel und Kirche 78.2 (2023)

“Cretan Memories: Crete in the Letter to Titus and the Acts of Titus.” Early Christianity 13 (2022): 455–67.

“Exilliteratur und die Gattung des Zweiten Timotheusbriefes.” Revue Biblique 129 (2022): 183–98.

“Ein Geist der Besonnenheit? Σωφρονισμός in 2Tim 1,7.” Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 114.1 (2023): 123–36.

“Geistlose Briefe? Πνεῦμα in den Timotheusbriefen und im Titusbrief.” In Geist | Ruach | Pneuma | Spiritus. Exegetische, theologische, religionsgeschichtliche und phänomenologische Perspektiven. Edited by R. Feldmeier, J. Frey, and B. Schliesser. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, forthcoming.

“Genderrollen in den Pastoralbriefen: ein Experiment mit verschiedenen Lesestrategien.” Theologische Literaturzeitung 146.5 (2021): 375–88.

“Ich weiß, wem ich mein Depositum anvertraut habe (2 Tim 1,12).” Biblische Zeitschrift 68 (2024).

“Die Kirche – Pfeiler und Fundament der Wahrheit? Zur Übersetzung und Auslegung von I Tim 3,15f.” Theologische Zeitschrift 77.1 (2021): 45–59.

“The Lord be with your spirit (2 Tim 4:22a).” Revue Biblique 130 (2023).

“The Pastoral Epistles and the Jewish Paul.” Pages 139–156 in Reception of Paul during the First Two Centuries: Exploration of the Jewish Matrix of Early Christianity. Edited by František Ábel. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books/Fortress Academic, 2023.

“Die Pastoralbriefe im Dienst reformatorischer und antireformatorischer Polemik bei Caspar Cruciger dem Älteren und Ambrosius Catharinus.” Pages 247–68 in Reformatorische Paulusauslegungen. Edited by Stefan Krauter and Manuel Nägele. History of Biblical Exegesis 5. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2023.

“In Würde altern: Tit 2 und antike Vorstellungen vom Alter.” Theologische Zeitschrift 79.2 (2023): 146–65.

“Zwischen Oikos und Polis: Die Gemeinde und ihre Gemeindeversammlung in den Pastoralbriefen.” in Qahal und Ekklesia: Typen und Funktionen von Versammlungen im Alten und Neuen Testament und ihren Umwelten. Edited by Joachim J. Krauter, Stefan Krauter, and Wolfgang Oswald. Studies in Cultural Contexts of the Bible. Leiden: Brill, 2024.